[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
statistical juggling can establish whether changes were made at stops in
between if the numbers that left New York are not known. But the claim
captures the general tenor of the announcements widespread at the time and
generally accepted since. However, in view of the enormous investment of
material and psychic interests over thirty years, and the degree of
desperation already evidenced in a determination to preserve the theory by any
means, it seems that some caution might be in order here, along with a deeper
look at exactly what is being claimed.
The assertion of being able to determine that flavors changed en route was
based on an assumption that the µ neutrino deficit registered at Kamiokade
indicated a vanishing of µ types that had been present to start with, and that
they could only be accounted for by the t types detected by SNO. There seems
to be a strong element of knowing what the answer has to be at work here.
Suppose that, based on figures for
New York's throughput of commerce, I've formed a model of the kind of train
that I think should be put together to handle it; but I've never been able to
see what actually leaves New York. Also, I have a theory that flat cars can
turn into tank cars. Nobody would disagree that a mixed train arriving in
Chicago with fewer flat cars than I expected is consistent with my ideas. But
it can't be taken as proving them. The presence of tank cars in the train is
no guarantee that any of them transformed from flat cars.
Page 97
ABC Amber Palm Converter, http://www.processtext.com/abcpalm.html
Three different reactions were used in the SNO experiment: Charged Current
reaction (CC), sensitive only to e neutrinos; Neutral Current (NC), sensitive
to all (e, µ, t); and Elastic Scattering (ES), sensitive to all, but with
reduced sensitivity to µ and t. If total neutrino flux was the prime issue of
interest, the NC
experiment would be the most important one. However, at the time of the
announcement that measurement was stated as being not available, to be
reported at a later date. As far as I'm aware, that's still the situation.
Despite the heavy public-relations treatment, my inclination is toward the
opinion that the jury is still out on this one. And even if final numbers
should be presented that are consistent with the standard theory, once again a
conclusion can't be taken as proof of the premise. (If it rains, the lawn will
be wet. But a wet lawn isn't proof that it rained.) Other causes can produce
similar end results, as we shall see. And the other difficulties with the
standard thermonuclear model still remain.
The Inside-Out Sun
Another difficulty, which we haven't mentioned, concerns the Sun's
photosphere the first layer outward from the interior that we see, which gives
off practically all the radiant energy that we think of as sunshine.
If the Sun were indeed in a condition of mechanical equilibrium maintained to
sustain the dissipation of internally generated thermal energy, then it might
well be expected to "end" right there. The mechanism gives no obvious cause
for anything more to happen beyond the photosphere, and unimpeded radiation
into space would probably afford the best means for getting rid of the photons
finally emerging at the surface. Yet the photosphere forms merely the base of
an atmosphere extending for enormous distances and exhibiting astonishing
complexity.
Perhaps the most striking feature of the photosphere is its lumpy "rice grain"
structure. Instead of being uniformly bright as might be expected, the surface
appears as made up of millions of high-luminosity granules of hot plasma in a
background of lesser luminosity forming a network between them the effect
being like looking down on closely packed fluffy clouds. The granules average
about 1,000 kilometers in diameter and come and go, splitting and merging,
with lifetimes in the order of minutes. Budding granules sometimes appear to
push up from below, pushing aside or replacing older ones; otherwise they show
little lateral movement.
The accepted explanation is that the granules are the tops of convection
current cells, which provide the mechanism for conveying heat from its origins
deep in the Sun, through the opaque interior to the surface, where it is
radiated away. The cooled material then descends back between the rising
columns, losing brilliance and appearing darker in comparison. Although
seemingly consistent and straightforward, this view has the problem that at
the temperatures and densities involved, the motion expected would be
violently turbulent and chaotic. This is in stark contrast to the orderly
pattern actually observed, with its structure and symmetry, where each granule
seems to fulfill a localized function constrained by forces that create
barriers to lateral motion and diffusion. Another peculiarity is the
photosphere's differential rotation, which varies from 25 days at the solar
equator to 35 days near the poles. Strong convection currents of the kind
proposed should bring about a uniformity of rotation.
It is true that classical studies of convection in fluids can reproduce the
structure of rising cells separated by descending flows said to be responsible
for solar granularity. But assuming the validity of terrestrial laboratory
physics under the conditions at the solar surface seems questionable,
especially when no account is taken of the plasma's electrical nature. If such
an assumption is granted, applying it then fails by its own criteria. A
quantity known as the Reynolds Number, combining several physical parameters,
exhibits a critical value beyond which ordered motion gives way to highly
Page 98
ABC Amber Palm Converter, http://www.processtext.com/abcpalm.html
complex turbulence in which ordered flows are precluded. Analysis of data from
the photosphere points to a Reynolds Number greater than critical by a factor
of 100 billion. This discrepancy is not trivial. Similarly, the critical value
of a quantity designated the Rayleigh Number, specifically devised as a
criterion for the formation of convection cells, is exceeded by a factor of
100,000. And even if structured convection does exist in the
Sun's depths, chaotic motion should still characterize the uppermost layer of
the photosphere that we see, where gas density diminishes rapidly with height
and both the Reynolds and Raleigh Numbers soar. It seems that the granulations
can be explained by convection only by disregarding everything that is known
about convection.
Conventional theory would predict an atmosphere above the photosphere only a
few kilometers thick.
Actually found, however, is the chromosphere, an extraordinarily active region
whose reddish glow is visible during solar eclipses. The inner chromosphere is [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl rafalstec.xlx.pl
statistical juggling can establish whether changes were made at stops in
between if the numbers that left New York are not known. But the claim
captures the general tenor of the announcements widespread at the time and
generally accepted since. However, in view of the enormous investment of
material and psychic interests over thirty years, and the degree of
desperation already evidenced in a determination to preserve the theory by any
means, it seems that some caution might be in order here, along with a deeper
look at exactly what is being claimed.
The assertion of being able to determine that flavors changed en route was
based on an assumption that the µ neutrino deficit registered at Kamiokade
indicated a vanishing of µ types that had been present to start with, and that
they could only be accounted for by the t types detected by SNO. There seems
to be a strong element of knowing what the answer has to be at work here.
Suppose that, based on figures for
New York's throughput of commerce, I've formed a model of the kind of train
that I think should be put together to handle it; but I've never been able to
see what actually leaves New York. Also, I have a theory that flat cars can
turn into tank cars. Nobody would disagree that a mixed train arriving in
Chicago with fewer flat cars than I expected is consistent with my ideas. But
it can't be taken as proving them. The presence of tank cars in the train is
no guarantee that any of them transformed from flat cars.
Page 97
ABC Amber Palm Converter, http://www.processtext.com/abcpalm.html
Three different reactions were used in the SNO experiment: Charged Current
reaction (CC), sensitive only to e neutrinos; Neutral Current (NC), sensitive
to all (e, µ, t); and Elastic Scattering (ES), sensitive to all, but with
reduced sensitivity to µ and t. If total neutrino flux was the prime issue of
interest, the NC
experiment would be the most important one. However, at the time of the
announcement that measurement was stated as being not available, to be
reported at a later date. As far as I'm aware, that's still the situation.
Despite the heavy public-relations treatment, my inclination is toward the
opinion that the jury is still out on this one. And even if final numbers
should be presented that are consistent with the standard theory, once again a
conclusion can't be taken as proof of the premise. (If it rains, the lawn will
be wet. But a wet lawn isn't proof that it rained.) Other causes can produce
similar end results, as we shall see. And the other difficulties with the
standard thermonuclear model still remain.
The Inside-Out Sun
Another difficulty, which we haven't mentioned, concerns the Sun's
photosphere the first layer outward from the interior that we see, which gives
off practically all the radiant energy that we think of as sunshine.
If the Sun were indeed in a condition of mechanical equilibrium maintained to
sustain the dissipation of internally generated thermal energy, then it might
well be expected to "end" right there. The mechanism gives no obvious cause
for anything more to happen beyond the photosphere, and unimpeded radiation
into space would probably afford the best means for getting rid of the photons
finally emerging at the surface. Yet the photosphere forms merely the base of
an atmosphere extending for enormous distances and exhibiting astonishing
complexity.
Perhaps the most striking feature of the photosphere is its lumpy "rice grain"
structure. Instead of being uniformly bright as might be expected, the surface
appears as made up of millions of high-luminosity granules of hot plasma in a
background of lesser luminosity forming a network between them the effect
being like looking down on closely packed fluffy clouds. The granules average
about 1,000 kilometers in diameter and come and go, splitting and merging,
with lifetimes in the order of minutes. Budding granules sometimes appear to
push up from below, pushing aside or replacing older ones; otherwise they show
little lateral movement.
The accepted explanation is that the granules are the tops of convection
current cells, which provide the mechanism for conveying heat from its origins
deep in the Sun, through the opaque interior to the surface, where it is
radiated away. The cooled material then descends back between the rising
columns, losing brilliance and appearing darker in comparison. Although
seemingly consistent and straightforward, this view has the problem that at
the temperatures and densities involved, the motion expected would be
violently turbulent and chaotic. This is in stark contrast to the orderly
pattern actually observed, with its structure and symmetry, where each granule
seems to fulfill a localized function constrained by forces that create
barriers to lateral motion and diffusion. Another peculiarity is the
photosphere's differential rotation, which varies from 25 days at the solar
equator to 35 days near the poles. Strong convection currents of the kind
proposed should bring about a uniformity of rotation.
It is true that classical studies of convection in fluids can reproduce the
structure of rising cells separated by descending flows said to be responsible
for solar granularity. But assuming the validity of terrestrial laboratory
physics under the conditions at the solar surface seems questionable,
especially when no account is taken of the plasma's electrical nature. If such
an assumption is granted, applying it then fails by its own criteria. A
quantity known as the Reynolds Number, combining several physical parameters,
exhibits a critical value beyond which ordered motion gives way to highly
Page 98
ABC Amber Palm Converter, http://www.processtext.com/abcpalm.html
complex turbulence in which ordered flows are precluded. Analysis of data from
the photosphere points to a Reynolds Number greater than critical by a factor
of 100 billion. This discrepancy is not trivial. Similarly, the critical value
of a quantity designated the Rayleigh Number, specifically devised as a
criterion for the formation of convection cells, is exceeded by a factor of
100,000. And even if structured convection does exist in the
Sun's depths, chaotic motion should still characterize the uppermost layer of
the photosphere that we see, where gas density diminishes rapidly with height
and both the Reynolds and Raleigh Numbers soar. It seems that the granulations
can be explained by convection only by disregarding everything that is known
about convection.
Conventional theory would predict an atmosphere above the photosphere only a
few kilometers thick.
Actually found, however, is the chromosphere, an extraordinarily active region
whose reddish glow is visible during solar eclipses. The inner chromosphere is [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]